The chapter discusses the emergence of new dynasties in the Indian subcontinent from the seventh to the twelfth centuries, focusing on their administration, taxation, warfare, and the socio-economic fabric surrounding these kingdoms.
From the seventh century onward, various dynasties emerged across the Indian subcontinent. Each of these dynasties dominated different territories, as illustrated in the map showing the major kingdoms from the seventh to twelfth centuries, including the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chahamanas (Chauhans).
Throughout this period, powerful landlords and warrior chiefs gained prominence. Often, existing kings recognized these chiefs as subordinates. These mid-level rulers were expected to bring gifts to their overlords, be available at court, and offer military support. However, as their wealth grew, they sought independence by declaring themselves maharajas (great kings) and distancing from their former overlords.
A key example is the Rashtrakutas, who initially served under the Chalukyas but rose to power after Dantidurga, their chief, overthrew his overlord, performing a ritual called abhiṣeka or the 'golden womb' that granted him divine legitimacy. Additionally, members of enterprising families, such as the Kadambas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas, who had noble roots, transitioned from their traditional roles into military leaders to establish new kingdoms.
The newly established kings adopted grand titles but often shared power with local chieftains, peasants, traders, and Brahmanas. Resources were extracted from a variety of producers — from agrarian communities to craftspeople. The inscriptional records from the Chola dynasty reveal more than 400 types of taxes, with the most notable being taxes in forced labor (vetti) and land revenue (kadamai). Taxes were collected not just from agriculture but also from various activities like using ladders or rights to property.
Kings used prashastis (laudatory inscriptions) to highlight their prowess and victories over rivals. Such inscriptions are valuable not only for the glory articulated by kings but also for understanding the administrative structures and cultural dynamics of their times. The copper plates recording land grants serve as a testament to the responsibilities endowed to Brahmanas, who received land upon which they were expected to flourish economically and culturally, further embedding them into the socio-political framework.
The tripartite struggle for the control over Kanauj reflects a period where multiple parties contended for strategic and economically rich territories, showcasing the intersection between military power and resource acquisition. This struggle among rulers illustrates the competitive nature of state formation during this time. Mahmud of Ghazni, with his religiously driven invasions, targeted wealthy temples, indicative of the larger trend where warfare was pursued not only for territory but also wealth.
The Chola empire emerged from a minor ruling family that successfully expanded their dominion over the Kaveri delta. Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I were pivotal in enhancing their influence, establishing a grand administrative framework, and building magnificent temples that also served as commercial hubs. These temples employed numerous skilled artisans and formed the core of local economies.
Agricultural advancements, particularly through irrigation techniques from the Kaveri river, facilitated a transition to a more productive agricultural economy, establishing the foundation for new wealth and power among the local rulers. Systems like well irrigation, the construction of tanks, and sophisticated water-sharing practices enabled expansive paddy cultivation, converting the region into an agricultural powerhouse. This involved detailed planning and required cooperation among the ruling elites and local farmers.
Rich peasants played a significant role in local governance through village assemblies (sabhās), which handled disputes and tax collection. Such local governance structures reflect a degree of decentralization within the Chola administration, encouraging active participation from diverse social classes in local politics.
The chapter presents a rich tapestry of the historical developments in kingship, territorial expansion, and socio-economic systems between the seventh and twelfth centuries. This era serves as a critical point in understanding the foundations of medieval Indian kingdoms and their legacies in contemporary society.